Note: This is an archive of both published and unpublished papers.
It should be understood some of this material does not contain up-to-date information and is included only for potential historical value or research purposes. Some of these topics are areas of recent and ongoing research interest.
What is it?
Female genital mutilation (FGM) has been practised for more than 2,500 years, it is misleading and inaccurate to claim, as often suggested, that it is a manifestation of Islam’s barbaric treatment of women, as clearly FGM predate Christianity, Islam and Judaism.
It occurs primarily through the central belt of Africa, from Senegal to Somalia, and as far north as Egypt. Virtually all women in Mali, Sudan and Somalia have been infibulated; although it may be occurring less frequently than has been the case. It also flourishes in Yemen and Oman, and is known to be practiced in Malaysia and Indonesia.
While it has been claimed that ‘the heavy emphasis on both the physical state of virginity within the Muslim religion and the importance of patrilineage leads to an institutionalisation of female circumcision in some regions as the perceived “best” method of controlling purity’, any credible discussion of FGM should not impugn the belief or practice of Muslims.
The World Health Organisation has described FGM as encompassing all procedures involving the partial or total removal of the female external genitalia or other injury to female genital organs for non-medical reasons.
It is also referred to as female circumcision or cutting. Female genital mutilation is normally carried out between infancy and age 15, although older girls and women may also undergo the practice. It is most often performed on minors by traditional practitioners, making it a violation of girls’ rights. Female genital mutilation also infringes upon fundamental human rights of girls and women, including their right to health, security, dignity, bodily autonomy and – in cases where the procedure leads to death – the right to life.
The WHO 2025 report FAQs on female genital mutilation estimated that some ‘230 million girls and women alive today have undergone female genital mutilation, a number that has risen by 15 per cent – that’s 30 million more cases – over the past eight years’.
Research
Swensen, G. (1994)
Submission to support Ministerial review of the grounds of application for refugee status, of whether a substantial risk of being subjected to circumcision (female) or other forms of genital mutilation in a woman’s country of origin should be such a ground under Australian law.
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Swensen, G. (1995)
Female genital mutilation and human rights. Australian Social Work, 1995, 48, 27 – 33.
This paper specifically considers the consequences if claims of cultural relativism were extended to FGM, this would have a deleterious outcome as the practice could be justified as culturally mandated.
Such an outcome would mean that Australia and other jurisdictions would thereby fail to recognise FGM as a transgression of a number of universal human rights contained in instruments ratified under the aegis of the United Nations, to which many countries, including Australia, are signatories.
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